Friday, January 27, 2012
Sunday, January 22, 2012
Tuesday, January 17, 2012
Monday, January 16, 2012
Dancing: Art of Expression
Along with the immensely popular genre of hip hop music, hip hop dance
history is a facet that has really boosted the popularity of the hip hop
culture. Over a period of time hip hop dance has really caught on big
time in the mainstream media, and the exposure it is given nowadays, is a
good indicator of how many people across the world really relate to it
and practice it. There are many old school and new school dance forms
that have embraced the hip hop dance culture now, and hip hop dance
history tells the story of that rise.
Hip hop dance primarily refers to the dance form that is performed to
hip hop music, and is usually synonymous with that music. Some trademark
moves like locking, popping and breaking have come to be easily related
to hip hop dance. The most intriguing part of hip hop dance is the
absence of any restrictions (known as free-styling), a method in which
pretty much anything goes. This has lent credence to the belief that hip
hop dance is not bound by any predetermined moves and rules, and that
there are no boundaries. The dance, like the minds of the dancers, is
meant to transcend through barriers of segregation.
The dance commonly occurs in the form of 'battles' between individual
dancers, or 2 groups of dancers, and usually occurs in a randomly
selected area on the streets. It is more a tussle of psychological and
mental dogmas, than the moves itself.
Sunday, January 15, 2012
Instructional Computer Functions
Instructional functions serve the “learner” element of the system and can augment or replace the “materials”, “monitor” and/or “author-teacher elements”. To fit properly into this category, an application must be directly involved in the learning process. The ultimate user is the “learner”, although the “author-teacher” is also a user, particularly during development and design. It is possible that some data banks information retrieval systems can meet these requirements and be part of an instructional system. Specially designed training computers or other computers used as training aids fit this definition, as do some simulation and gaming applications.
It is both logical and convenient to divide instructional functions into two categories: in one the computer does the teaching, while in the other the computer assists a human teacher.
Unfortunately, it has become almost common practice to use the term computer assisted instruction for the process in which the computer does the teaching. It is thus necessary at this point to consider more carefully the various definitions of CAI. One of the broadest definitions is that of Engel (1969): Computer-Assisted Instruction may be thought of as any means by which educational processes are furthered by the use of computers. Stansfield (1968) is equally general: We mean by CAI: using computers to teach people- we don’t mean teaching people to use computers, or teaching people about computer technology. The Association for Computing Machinery (1967) has used both a broad sense definition of “the use of computers in human learning situations”, and a narrow sense of definition: A method of instruction in which a learner and a computer interact with one another, with this two- way communication producing human learning and retention of this learning. Furthermore, the computer program with which the learner interacts must be developed with specific behavioral objectives in mind. 1. In other words, in CAI the computer actually instructs! 2. Based on stimulus-response theory in learning psychology: the computer presents the stimulus, the learner responds, the computer provides feedback as to the correctness of the response and, depending upon various criteria, may provide reinforcement, remedial instruction or new instruction in the next step. Equally important are those items which the ACM cited as specifically not being examples of CAI:
1. Demonstrating problem solutions in class
2. Problem-solving by students
3. Library information retrieval by students, faculty and staff
4. Student guidance
5. Student and class scheduling
6. Educational accounting, records and statistics
7. Payroll and purchasing
In a paper presented at the 21st National ACM Conference in 1966, Leonard and Gloria Silvern (1966) said: CAI is a man-machine relationship in which the man is a learner and the machine is the computer system. Two- way communication exists, with the objective of human learning and retention . . . During instruction, the only humans in the system would be learners. . The mere presence of a computer in an educational environment is not sufficient to define it as a computer-assisted instruction system. To be CAI, the computer must actually instruct the student, and not be simply a tool to assist in solving problems or retrieving information. But the term CAI should be reserved for those particular learning situations in which a computer contains a stored instructional program designed to inform, guide, control and test the student until a prescribed level of proficiency is reached. Less restrictive is the definition of CAI provided by Feingold (1968)” CAI means using the computer to control or monitor the presentation of some portion of information. The sequence of presentation is not necessarily a function of the student’s response to information received; the student’s response to information received; an electronic slide projector operating with an automatic timer is a simple example of analog computer presenting information independently of the student’s response. As if having second thoughts about the preceding definition, Feingold goes on to say: A more complete definition would include the notion of interaction. Interaction is the sequence of operations in which the computer presents some information, the student responds, and the computer, on the basis of his response, presents more information. The computer’s ability to interact with a student is fundamental to the achievement of meaningful instruction whenever the instruction is such that it can vary according to the student’s performance.
Thus, Feingold is essentially in agreement with the Silvern and the ACM. The U.S. Continental Army Command (CONARC) uses the term (1969) “Computer- Assisted Instruction” wherein “most of the teaching functions are accomplished by use of the computer” and “Computer- Based Instruction” in which “the computer is used essentially as a training aid”. These are complemented by “Computer Support of the Instructor” which provides “indirect support f an instructional situation” and from the earlier discussion should be thought of as an ancillary function not unique to education. CONARC’s complete definition of CAI is: A man-machine interaction in which most of the training functions are accomplished by the use of the computer in direct support of a training situation. Both training material and tutorial logic are stored in computer memory. The broad and general definitions of CAI are rejected as being of little value and as being very apt to lead to confusion. In the more explicit definitions there is general agreement that CAI must include: 1. Instructional material presented to the learner entirely under computer control. 2. Interaction between the learner and the computer. These two points are generally sufficient to allow us to separate what should be accepted as CAI from other educational applications of computers
Unfortunately, it has become almost common practice to use the term computer assisted instruction for the process in which the computer does the teaching. It is thus necessary at this point to consider more carefully the various definitions of CAI. One of the broadest definitions is that of Engel (1969): Computer-Assisted Instruction may be thought of as any means by which educational processes are furthered by the use of computers. Stansfield (1968) is equally general: We mean by CAI: using computers to teach people- we don’t mean teaching people to use computers, or teaching people about computer technology. The Association for Computing Machinery (1967) has used both a broad sense definition of “the use of computers in human learning situations”, and a narrow sense of definition: A method of instruction in which a learner and a computer interact with one another, with this two- way communication producing human learning and retention of this learning. Furthermore, the computer program with which the learner interacts must be developed with specific behavioral objectives in mind. 1. In other words, in CAI the computer actually instructs! 2. Based on stimulus-response theory in learning psychology: the computer presents the stimulus, the learner responds, the computer provides feedback as to the correctness of the response and, depending upon various criteria, may provide reinforcement, remedial instruction or new instruction in the next step. Equally important are those items which the ACM cited as specifically not being examples of CAI:
1. Demonstrating problem solutions in class
2. Problem-solving by students
3. Library information retrieval by students, faculty and staff
4. Student guidance
5. Student and class scheduling
6. Educational accounting, records and statistics
7. Payroll and purchasing
In a paper presented at the 21st National ACM Conference in 1966, Leonard and Gloria Silvern (1966) said: CAI is a man-machine relationship in which the man is a learner and the machine is the computer system. Two- way communication exists, with the objective of human learning and retention . . . During instruction, the only humans in the system would be learners. . The mere presence of a computer in an educational environment is not sufficient to define it as a computer-assisted instruction system. To be CAI, the computer must actually instruct the student, and not be simply a tool to assist in solving problems or retrieving information. But the term CAI should be reserved for those particular learning situations in which a computer contains a stored instructional program designed to inform, guide, control and test the student until a prescribed level of proficiency is reached. Less restrictive is the definition of CAI provided by Feingold (1968)” CAI means using the computer to control or monitor the presentation of some portion of information. The sequence of presentation is not necessarily a function of the student’s response to information received; the student’s response to information received; an electronic slide projector operating with an automatic timer is a simple example of analog computer presenting information independently of the student’s response. As if having second thoughts about the preceding definition, Feingold goes on to say: A more complete definition would include the notion of interaction. Interaction is the sequence of operations in which the computer presents some information, the student responds, and the computer, on the basis of his response, presents more information. The computer’s ability to interact with a student is fundamental to the achievement of meaningful instruction whenever the instruction is such that it can vary according to the student’s performance.
Thus, Feingold is essentially in agreement with the Silvern and the ACM. The U.S. Continental Army Command (CONARC) uses the term (1969) “Computer- Assisted Instruction” wherein “most of the teaching functions are accomplished by use of the computer” and “Computer- Based Instruction” in which “the computer is used essentially as a training aid”. These are complemented by “Computer Support of the Instructor” which provides “indirect support f an instructional situation” and from the earlier discussion should be thought of as an ancillary function not unique to education. CONARC’s complete definition of CAI is: A man-machine interaction in which most of the training functions are accomplished by the use of the computer in direct support of a training situation. Both training material and tutorial logic are stored in computer memory. The broad and general definitions of CAI are rejected as being of little value and as being very apt to lead to confusion. In the more explicit definitions there is general agreement that CAI must include: 1. Instructional material presented to the learner entirely under computer control. 2. Interaction between the learner and the computer. These two points are generally sufficient to allow us to separate what should be accepted as CAI from other educational applications of computers
Saturday, January 14, 2012
Approaches to ICT Development
Approaches to ICT Development
Advances in technology and the way technology is incorporated into a system is a dynamic process. Each school must work within the context of its own system to fit choices to what best suits its unique situation and culture. Even within a school, various units or courses may use different approaches. The approaches are hierarchical with the emerging approach as a beginning point, and the transforming approach as a goal many perceive as the future of education.
Emerging
The emerging approach is linked with schools at the beginning stages of ICT development. Such schools begin to purchase computer equipment and software or perhaps have had some donated. In this initial phase, administrators and teachers are just starting to explore the possibilities and consequences of adding ICT for school management and the curriculum. The school is still firmly grounded in traditional, teacher-centered practice. For example, teachers tend to lecture and provide content while students listen, take notes, and are assessed on the prescribed content. School organization provides discrete time periods for each subject. Learners' access to technology is through individual teachers. A curriculum that focuses on basic skills and an awareness of the uses of ICT assists movement to the next approach.
Applying
The applying approach is linked with schools in which a new understanding of the contribution of ICT to learning has developed. In this phase, administrators and teachers use ICT for tasks already carried out in school management and in the curriculum. Teachers still largely dominate the learning environment. For example, instructing may be supplemented with ICT such as electronic slide presentations and word-processed handouts. Students receive instruction and add notes to teacher prepared handouts. They use ICT tools to complete required lessons and are assessed on prescribed content. School organization provides discrete time periods for each subject with some flexibility to combine subjects and time periods. Learner access to technology is through one or two classroom computers and computer labs. Until now, ICT has been taught as a separate subject area. To move to the next phase, the school chooses to implement an ICT-based curriculum that increases ICT across various subject areas with the use of specific tools and software.
Infusing
The infusing approach is linked with schools that now have a range of computer-based technologies in laboratories, classrooms, and administrative areas. Teachers explore new ways in which ICT changes their personal productivity and professional practice. The curriculum begins to merge subject areas to reflect real-world applications. For example, content is provided from multiple sources, including community and global resources through the World Wide Web. Students' access to technology enables them to choose projects and ICT tools that stimulate learning and demonstrate their knowledge across subject areas. School organization provides the flexibility to combine subjects and time periods. Learners have more choices with regard to learning styles and pathways. They take more responsibility for their own learning and assessment. ICT is taught to selected students as a subject area at the professional level. To advance to the next phase, schools choose an ICT curriculum that allows a project-based, ICT-enhanced approach. These schools begin to involve the community more in the learning environment and as resource providers.
Transforming
The transforming approach is linked with schools that have used ICT creatively to rethink and renew school organization. ICT becomes an integral though invisible part of the daily personal productivity and professional practice. The focus of the curriculum is now much more learner- centered and integrates subject areas in real-world applications. For example, Students may work with community leaders to solve local problems by accessing, analyzing, reporting, and presenting information with ICT tools. Learners’ access to technology is broad and unrestricted. They take even more responsibility for their own learning and assessment. ICT is taught as a subject area at an applied level and is incorporated into all vocational areas. The school has become a centre of learning for the community.
Emerging
The emerging approach is linked with schools at the beginning stages of ICT development. Such schools begin to purchase computer equipment and software or perhaps have had some donated. In this initial phase, administrators and teachers are just starting to explore the possibilities and consequences of adding ICT for school management and the curriculum. The school is still firmly grounded in traditional, teacher-centered practice. For example, teachers tend to lecture and provide content while students listen, take notes, and are assessed on the prescribed content. School organization provides discrete time periods for each subject. Learners' access to technology is through individual teachers. A curriculum that focuses on basic skills and an awareness of the uses of ICT assists movement to the next approach.
Applying
The applying approach is linked with schools in which a new understanding of the contribution of ICT to learning has developed. In this phase, administrators and teachers use ICT for tasks already carried out in school management and in the curriculum. Teachers still largely dominate the learning environment. For example, instructing may be supplemented with ICT such as electronic slide presentations and word-processed handouts. Students receive instruction and add notes to teacher prepared handouts. They use ICT tools to complete required lessons and are assessed on prescribed content. School organization provides discrete time periods for each subject with some flexibility to combine subjects and time periods. Learner access to technology is through one or two classroom computers and computer labs. Until now, ICT has been taught as a separate subject area. To move to the next phase, the school chooses to implement an ICT-based curriculum that increases ICT across various subject areas with the use of specific tools and software.
Infusing
The infusing approach is linked with schools that now have a range of computer-based technologies in laboratories, classrooms, and administrative areas. Teachers explore new ways in which ICT changes their personal productivity and professional practice. The curriculum begins to merge subject areas to reflect real-world applications. For example, content is provided from multiple sources, including community and global resources through the World Wide Web. Students' access to technology enables them to choose projects and ICT tools that stimulate learning and demonstrate their knowledge across subject areas. School organization provides the flexibility to combine subjects and time periods. Learners have more choices with regard to learning styles and pathways. They take more responsibility for their own learning and assessment. ICT is taught to selected students as a subject area at the professional level. To advance to the next phase, schools choose an ICT curriculum that allows a project-based, ICT-enhanced approach. These schools begin to involve the community more in the learning environment and as resource providers.
Transforming
The transforming approach is linked with schools that have used ICT creatively to rethink and renew school organization. ICT becomes an integral though invisible part of the daily personal productivity and professional practice. The focus of the curriculum is now much more learner- centered and integrates subject areas in real-world applications. For example, Students may work with community leaders to solve local problems by accessing, analyzing, reporting, and presenting information with ICT tools. Learners’ access to technology is broad and unrestricted. They take even more responsibility for their own learning and assessment. ICT is taught as a subject area at an applied level and is incorporated into all vocational areas. The school has become a centre of learning for the community.
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