Instructional functions serve the “learner” element of the system and can augment or replace the “materials”, “monitor” and/or “author-teacher elements”. To fit properly into this category, an application must be directly involved in the learning process. The ultimate user is the “learner”, although the “author-teacher” is also a user, particularly during development and design. It is possible that some data banks information retrieval systems can meet these requirements and be part of an instructional system. Specially designed training computers or other computers used as training aids fit this definition, as do some simulation and gaming applications.
It is both logical and convenient to divide instructional functions into two categories: in one the computer does the teaching, while in the other the computer assists a human teacher.
Unfortunately, it has become almost common practice to use the term computer assisted instruction for the process in which the computer does the teaching. It is thus necessary at this point to consider more carefully the various definitions of CAI. One of the broadest definitions is that of Engel (1969): Computer-Assisted Instruction may be thought of as any means by which educational processes are furthered by the use of computers. Stansfield (1968) is equally general: We mean by CAI: using computers to teach people- we don’t mean teaching people to use computers, or teaching people about computer technology. The Association for Computing Machinery (1967) has used both a broad sense definition of “the use of computers in human learning situations”, and a narrow sense of definition: A method of instruction in which a learner and a computer interact with one another, with this two- way communication producing human learning and retention of this learning. Furthermore, the computer program with which the learner interacts must be developed with specific behavioral objectives in mind. 1. In other words, in CAI the computer actually instructs! 2. Based on stimulus-response theory in learning psychology: the computer presents the stimulus, the learner responds, the computer provides feedback as to the correctness of the response and, depending upon various criteria, may provide reinforcement, remedial instruction or new instruction in the next step. Equally important are those items which the ACM cited as specifically not being examples of CAI:
1. Demonstrating problem solutions in class
2. Problem-solving by students
3. Library information retrieval by students, faculty and staff
4. Student guidance
5. Student and class scheduling
6. Educational accounting, records and statistics
7. Payroll and purchasing
In a paper presented at the 21st National ACM Conference in 1966, Leonard and Gloria Silvern (1966) said: CAI is a man-machine relationship in which the man is a learner and the machine is the computer system. Two- way communication exists, with the objective of human learning and retention . . . During instruction, the only humans in the system would be learners. . The mere presence of a computer in an educational environment is not sufficient to define it as a computer-assisted instruction system. To be CAI, the computer must actually instruct the student, and not be simply a tool to assist in solving problems or retrieving information. But the term CAI should be reserved for those particular learning situations in which a computer contains a stored instructional program designed to inform, guide, control and test the student until a prescribed level of proficiency is reached. Less restrictive is the definition of CAI provided by Feingold (1968)” CAI means using the computer to control or monitor the presentation of some portion of information. The sequence of presentation is not necessarily a function of the student’s response to information received; the student’s response to information received; an electronic slide projector operating with an automatic timer is a simple example of analog computer presenting information independently of the student’s response. As if having second thoughts about the preceding definition, Feingold goes on to say: A more complete definition would include the notion of interaction. Interaction is the sequence of operations in which the computer presents some information, the student responds, and the computer, on the basis of his response, presents more information. The computer’s ability to interact with a student is fundamental to the achievement of meaningful instruction whenever the instruction is such that it can vary according to the student’s performance.
Thus, Feingold is essentially in agreement with the Silvern and the ACM. The U.S. Continental Army Command (CONARC) uses the term (1969) “Computer- Assisted Instruction” wherein “most of the teaching functions are accomplished by use of the computer” and “Computer- Based Instruction” in which “the computer is used essentially as a training aid”. These are complemented by “Computer Support of the Instructor” which provides “indirect support f an instructional situation” and from the earlier discussion should be thought of as an ancillary function not unique to education. CONARC’s complete definition of CAI is: A man-machine interaction in which most of the training functions are accomplished by the use of the computer in direct support of a training situation. Both training material and tutorial logic are stored in computer memory. The broad and general definitions of CAI are rejected as being of little value and as being very apt to lead to confusion. In the more explicit definitions there is general agreement that CAI must include: 1. Instructional material presented to the learner entirely under computer control. 2. Interaction between the learner and the computer. These two points are generally sufficient to allow us to separate what should be accepted as CAI from other educational applications of computers
Unfortunately, it has become almost common practice to use the term computer assisted instruction for the process in which the computer does the teaching. It is thus necessary at this point to consider more carefully the various definitions of CAI. One of the broadest definitions is that of Engel (1969): Computer-Assisted Instruction may be thought of as any means by which educational processes are furthered by the use of computers. Stansfield (1968) is equally general: We mean by CAI: using computers to teach people- we don’t mean teaching people to use computers, or teaching people about computer technology. The Association for Computing Machinery (1967) has used both a broad sense definition of “the use of computers in human learning situations”, and a narrow sense of definition: A method of instruction in which a learner and a computer interact with one another, with this two- way communication producing human learning and retention of this learning. Furthermore, the computer program with which the learner interacts must be developed with specific behavioral objectives in mind. 1. In other words, in CAI the computer actually instructs! 2. Based on stimulus-response theory in learning psychology: the computer presents the stimulus, the learner responds, the computer provides feedback as to the correctness of the response and, depending upon various criteria, may provide reinforcement, remedial instruction or new instruction in the next step. Equally important are those items which the ACM cited as specifically not being examples of CAI:
1. Demonstrating problem solutions in class
2. Problem-solving by students
3. Library information retrieval by students, faculty and staff
4. Student guidance
5. Student and class scheduling
6. Educational accounting, records and statistics
7. Payroll and purchasing
In a paper presented at the 21st National ACM Conference in 1966, Leonard and Gloria Silvern (1966) said: CAI is a man-machine relationship in which the man is a learner and the machine is the computer system. Two- way communication exists, with the objective of human learning and retention . . . During instruction, the only humans in the system would be learners. . The mere presence of a computer in an educational environment is not sufficient to define it as a computer-assisted instruction system. To be CAI, the computer must actually instruct the student, and not be simply a tool to assist in solving problems or retrieving information. But the term CAI should be reserved for those particular learning situations in which a computer contains a stored instructional program designed to inform, guide, control and test the student until a prescribed level of proficiency is reached. Less restrictive is the definition of CAI provided by Feingold (1968)” CAI means using the computer to control or monitor the presentation of some portion of information. The sequence of presentation is not necessarily a function of the student’s response to information received; the student’s response to information received; an electronic slide projector operating with an automatic timer is a simple example of analog computer presenting information independently of the student’s response. As if having second thoughts about the preceding definition, Feingold goes on to say: A more complete definition would include the notion of interaction. Interaction is the sequence of operations in which the computer presents some information, the student responds, and the computer, on the basis of his response, presents more information. The computer’s ability to interact with a student is fundamental to the achievement of meaningful instruction whenever the instruction is such that it can vary according to the student’s performance.
Thus, Feingold is essentially in agreement with the Silvern and the ACM. The U.S. Continental Army Command (CONARC) uses the term (1969) “Computer- Assisted Instruction” wherein “most of the teaching functions are accomplished by use of the computer” and “Computer- Based Instruction” in which “the computer is used essentially as a training aid”. These are complemented by “Computer Support of the Instructor” which provides “indirect support f an instructional situation” and from the earlier discussion should be thought of as an ancillary function not unique to education. CONARC’s complete definition of CAI is: A man-machine interaction in which most of the training functions are accomplished by the use of the computer in direct support of a training situation. Both training material and tutorial logic are stored in computer memory. The broad and general definitions of CAI are rejected as being of little value and as being very apt to lead to confusion. In the more explicit definitions there is general agreement that CAI must include: 1. Instructional material presented to the learner entirely under computer control. 2. Interaction between the learner and the computer. These two points are generally sufficient to allow us to separate what should be accepted as CAI from other educational applications of computers
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